Slovenia's "Third Wave" Ascent to Democracy
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Fall, 2002. Slovenia, one of six Yugoslavian republics located in Eastern Europe, is the wealthiest republic in the region, with a strongly diversified economy. This is surprising, considering that the Slovenian territory was under a communist totalitarian regime until 1991, when it achieved independence and became a parliamentary democratic republic. But how did this transformation take place, why did it take place, and what are the overall effects of it? In order to answer these questions, it’s important to comprehend the term ‘democracy’, understand contemporary theories on democratization, prospects for democratic consolidation, and take into account the factors that brought democracy forth in Slovenia. Only understanding these important aspects can help us make sense of recent events by offering a solid theoretical framework for understanding the democratic transition within Slovenia and, as a result, other countries as well. Slovenia’s ascent to democracy became a reality due to social, economic, and political differences that clearly divided it from the former Yugoslavian Socialist Republic. The evolving Slovenian culture, economic supremacy, and distaste for socialism created what is now known as the republic of Slovenia. Let’s start by defining our primary term, democracy. "A competitive regime in a country in which people are voted in and out of office and in which the adult population can vote in regularly scheduled elections” can be defined as a democratic country. Additionally, democracies typically have civil liberties such as freedom of speech and assembly. Of the 205 countries in the world, about 110 of them have these characteristics that qualify them as democracies. Background Information Josip Tito (1892-1980), the leader of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1980, was a brilliant force of personality that kept Slovenia’s nationalist, hegemonic tendencies in check. He imposed fear upon the citizens within the region under his control, indirectly forcing them to unite under one Yugoslavia. After the death of Tito in 1980, many of the Yugoslav republics started demanding greater autonomy. Additionally, after Tito’s death, each of the seven Yugoslav states had distinct electoral systems at various stages of development, with Slovenia being the first of the republics to hold participatory multiparty elections. According to contemporary theorists, there are four major techniques of creating political change, among them the coup d’etat, an insurgency (guerilla warfare), terrorism, and non-violence. Slovenia’s eventual democracy was a result of non-violence. Contemporary Theories on Democratization Samuel Huntington, in his popular contemporary book The Third Wave, notes five changes in the world that paved the way for the "third wave" (1974-1990) of democratic transitions. According to Huntington, the five changes were authoritarian governments' problems maintaining legitimacy, the burgeoning economies of many countries, "new" religious perspectives, the establishment of non-governmental organizations, and "snowballing" effects due to new international communications. The 19911992 period, the same period in which Slovenia gained it's independence from Yugoslavia, seems to have been the high-water mark for freedom in the world. Since 1991, the proportion of free states has declined slightly, while the proportion of "not free" states has jumped sharply. According to Huntington, there are two necessary components of any democracy: contestation and inclusion. Without contestation, there is no electoral competition; competition is required for any democracy to thrive and flourish. Without inclusion, certain segments of society are not eligible to participate, leaving a lack of true democratic representation. While all democratic governments must exercise some real power and authority, not all democratic governments are necessarily good governments. Major Factors in Democratization The three major factors in democratization within Slovenia are social differences, economic differences, and political differences between Slovenes and Yugoslavs. After World War II, Yugoslavia was under a communist regime. The Slovenes’ economy and culture evolved and it was soon evident that its association with Yugoslavia was hindering its growth. Slovenia’s natural heritage is its most valuable and perhaps also its greatest resource. Slovenes put great weight in the unique architecture, picturesque castles, and cast theatres that separate it from other former territories of the former Yugoslavia. And, not to say that these factors directly contributed to the eventual independence of Slovenia, but, rather, the overall multitude of differences between Slovenia and the other republics was one cause of Slovenia’s withdrawal. In the late 1980s, Slovenia’s relationship with Serbia and the Yugoslav central government grew increasingly tense. Slovenes expressed disgust with what they viewed as Serbian domination of federal affairs. Slovenes no longer wished to bear moral responsibility for matters in which they felt they had no part, such as the inter-ethnic conflicts throughout Yugoslavia, particularly Kosovo. Economically, Slovenes also felt the burden of Yugoslav irresponsibility. Slovenes paid four times the amount in federal taxes than they received in federal programs or benefits. Slovenia, which contained about 8% of the population of Yugoslavia, produced 20% of the GNP and 30% of the hard currency. The army they paid for was one in which the officers were largely Serbian . Slovenia, in addition to Croatia – both more developed than other parts of Yugoslavia – resented paying more of Yugoslavia’s economic bill. Centralized economic reform was difficult for Yugoslavia due to the extensive system of checks and balances it had to deal with. Finally, there was a clear political difference between Slovenia and its parent nation of Yugoslavia. During the spring of 1987, known as “Slovenian Spring,” a group of individuals congregated that promoted democratic ideals and an independent Slovenia. These individuals associated with the Nova Revija magazine and published articles regarding these ideas. The communist leadership initially rejected their ideas. However, as the opposition garnered more support from the public, the regime allowed the Slovenes to control the military in Slovenian territory and to have a multi-party system. Prospects for Democratic Consolidation Slovenia has experienced the expected challenges of democratic consolidation, including managing increased pressure on the new regime when it was not yet fully capable, coping with a brief economic crisis, deciding on how to approach the process of privatization, and balancing short term and long term benefits to secure legitimacy. However, the country is well on its way to democratic consolidation – perhaps more so than any of the other countries that comprised the former Yugoslav Republic. One of the reasons Slovenia has been so successful thus far is that its separation from the former Yugoslavia was relatively smooth and peaceful compared to the other countries. The old regime initiated pluralism in the mid-80's in the Republic of Slovenia, and its transition in 1991 can be considered an example of Huntington's theory of transplacement, which is a much smoother transition. The new regime won the first competitive election, which resulted in "political stability and, eventually, more or less sustained growth .” In addition, since its independence, Slovenia has begun to institutionalize democracy in order to legitimize it as a permanent system in the country. Slovenia has a solid Constitution, and the country has developed a political system of checks and balances within the state and within the government. Moreover, the legislature is representative. It is composed of 90 members, 40 of which are appointed by direct election and 50 of which are appointed with regard to population proportion. Furthermore, Slovenia has taken a number of measures to transition from a socialist state economy to a westernized market economy. Slovenia's GDP per capita is currently $12,000. In addition, research has concluded that civil liberties and political rights are evolved and prevalent in Slovenia. Slovenia has also received international recognition and support. It has been a member of the United Nations since 1992 and is currently in a solid position for possible acceptance into the European Union within the next few years, which can only help increase the prospect of a successful democratic consolidation. Although we cannot know definitively if Slovenia will successfully consolidate, the facts and expectations are promising. Huntington in Theory vs. Slovenian Case Study in Reality Among the characteristics of third wave transitions, Samuel Huntington lists five, three of which are directly related to the Slovenian case study. The first that Huntington pinpoints is authoritarian governments’ problems maintaining legitimacy. Yugoslavia had a difficult time maintaining legitimacy with the Slovenian people, largely due to factors of taxation without representation and the ethnic differences that plagued them. Another of Huntington’s accurate provisions was the burgeoning economy of the former Yugoslavia, which Slovenia felt it was responsible for maintaining. The fact that Slovenia was paying an immense amount to keep the government of Yugoslavia running, but that the Slovenian people did not receive any benefit from their payments, secures the validity of Huntington’s argument. Finally, Huntington’s theory that "new" religious perspectives comes into play, although religion wasn’t as key in the Slovenia/Yugoslavia break as much as cultural heritage and identity were themselves. Due to Slovenia’s heterogeneity and prosperity, the fact that they have their own language, and the fact that most of its citizens are Roman Catholic, Slovenia itself was the first of the former Yugoslavian territories to secede. This secession falls in line with Huntington’s provision related to cultural or religious turmoil. Finally, contestation and inclusion were not elements of the former Yugoslavia, leading to lack of real representation for Slovenia. As Slovenia realized that it was being held hostage, a democracy reform movement rose up to fight for contestation and inclusion – elements that Huntington defines as necessary components of democracy. Electoral competition occurred for the first time in Slovenia in 1992, when it broke from the former Yugoslaia. At that point, Miles Kucan was elected President of the Republic of Slovenia. In 2000, Slovenia got its sixth government independent of the former Yugoslavia -- the fourth government built by the leader of the centre-left Liberal Democracy Party (LDS), Dr. Janez Drnovšek. Slovania’s Post-Independence Progress Since the breakup of the former Yugoslavia, Slovenia has instituted a stable, multi-party, democratic political system, characterized by regular elections, a free press, and an excellent human rights record. Slovenia is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional republic. Within its government, power is shared between a directly elected president, a prime minister, and a bicameral legislature (Parliament). Parliament is composed of the 90-member National Assembly--which takes the lead on virtually all legislative issues--and the National Council, a largely advisory body composed of representatives from social, economic, professional, and local interests. The Constitutional Court has the highest power of review of legislation to ensure its consistency with Slovenia's constitution. Its nine judges are elected for 9-year terms. Ten years after independence, Slovenia has made tremendous progress establishing democratic institutions, enshrining respect for human rights, establishing a market economy and adapting its military to Western norms and standards. In contrast to its neighbors, civil tranquility and strong economic growth have marked this period. Upon achieving independence, Slovenia offered citizenship to all residents, regardless of ethnicity or origin, avoiding a sectarian trap that has caught out many central European countries. Slovenia willingly accepted refugees from the fighting in Bosnia and has since participated in international stabilization efforts in the region. Conclusion The culmination of these differences resulted in a referendum on independence on 23 December 1990. Slovenia dissociated itself from Yugoslavia half a year later, on 25 June 1991. Actual independence was declared on 7 October 1991. The first free elections were held in 1990. A coalition of parties, united in DEMOS, won the elections. Milan Kucan was elected president and has been president of Slovenia ever since. In December, 1992 the first free elections were held in an independent Slovenia. Works Cited Garber, Larry and Eric Bjornlund, eds. The New Democratic Frontier: A Country by Country Report on Elections in Central and Eastern Europe. Washington, DC: National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, 1992. Glenny, Misha. The Fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War. New York: Penguin Books, 1996 (revised) Huntington, Samuel P. The Third Wave. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. Jazbec, Milan. The Diplomacies of New Small States: The Case of Slovenia with Some Comparison from the Baltics. Aldershot, Hants, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 2001. Rizman, Rudolph M. Slovenia's Path Towards Democratic Consolidation. Report. 2001. |
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